The Pakistan Movement and Key Events Leading to Independence from 1905

The independence struggle in the Indian subcontinent was thus a long and tortuous journey replete with landmark events, political wheeling and dealing, and shifting ideological positions. At the center of such struggle was the Pakistan Movement that contended for a separate nation to be formed in the Indian subcontinent where the due rights of the Muslims would be upheld. The following article describes some pivoting moments in the path to the emergence of Pakistan in 1947. An effort is made to provide here an understanding of the historical perspective and roles of different leaders and organizations in the greater context of the independence struggle.

The Indian National Congress and Early Nationalism

The Indian National Congress was a political organization formed in 1885 that led the fight against British colonial rule. Incidentally, its initial aim of representation was to include all Indians regardless of religion. The Muslims felt with time that INC represented basically the Hindu interests and started to fear their political and social future in a predominantly Hindu organization.

The Partition of Bengal (1905)

British Decision and Implementation

In 1905, the British government, headed by the Viceroy Lord Curzon, partitioned Bengal into two provinces: East Bengal and Assam with a majority of Muslims in the east, and West Bengal with a majority of Hindus. The ostensible reason being that it was for administrative efficiency because Bengal was so huge and was by far the most populous.

Muslim Response

The partition was welcomed by the Muslims because this allowed greater political authority in an area where they were in the majority. East Bengal was created as a result of such divisions, and this was seen and believed as an opportunity to bring about improvement in their socio-economic backwardness and for better educational and employment opportunities.

Hindu Response

Hindus vigorously opposed the partition decision as a ‘divide and rule’ tactic adopted by the British to bring about weakness in the rising nationalist movement. The opposition resulted in nation-wide agitations, which included boycott of British goods-Swadeshi Movement-and revolutionary activities.

Annulment of Partition and Aftermath (1911)

The British annulled the partition due to sustained Hindu protests in 1911. This naturally caused a great deal of disappointment among the Muslims, who felt betrayed by such a reversal of policy in their interest. In fact, this annulment strengthened the pace of Muslim political activism and brought into sharper focus the requirement of a separate political platform for safeguarding the interests of the Muslims.

Shimla Deputation 1906

This felt need for political representation brought a delegation of 35 Muslim leaders under the leadership of Sir Aga Khan III before Viceroy Lord Minto at Shimla in 1906 to demand separate electorates and weightage in representation on the basis of being a distinct community with peculiar needs. The success of this deputation laid the ground for formal Muslim political organization.

Establishment of All India Muslim League (1906)

The All India Muslim League was formed in Dhaka in December 1906 to represent the political interests of the Muslims. It included among its aims the loyalty of the British government, protection of the rights of the Muslims, and prevention of the growth of hatred among the Muslims toward the other communities.

The Lucknow Pact (1916)

Agreement Between Congress and Muslim League

The Lucknow Pact marked that spot where the INC and the Muslim League came upon a mutual platform regarding constitutional reforms. Salient features were:

Separate Electorates: The concept accepted and agreed upon by both parties.

Proportional representation was granted to the Muslims in provinces where they were in the minority. Greater autonomy was demanded from the British government.

Importance

It was a symbol of Hindu-Muslim unity, and it further emphasized the demand for self-government. It was for the first time that the two main political parties came forward with a united front before the British rulers.

The Rowlatt Act-The Black Bill 1919

The Rowlatt Act carried wartime emergency measures into peacetime, allowing the government to imprison suspects without trial. It drastically cut at civil liberties and was greeted with widespread outrage. Demonstrations against the act resulted in incidents such as the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, in which British troops killed hundreds of unarmed civilians, which further enflamed anti-British feelings.

The Khilafat Movement (1919-1924)

After World War I, the future of the Ottoman Caliphate was taken away. The Khilafat Movement was started by Indian Muslims in a bid to persuade the British government to retain the powers of the Caliph, who was considered the head representative of Islamic unity.

Collaboration with Congress

The movement immediately caught support from Mahatma Gandhi, who linked it with the Non-Cooperation Movement. This served to eventually combine both Hindus and Muslims into one stream of opposing British rule.

Decline

After the Caliphate’s abolition by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in 1924, the movement declined. Failure brought disappointment amongst the Muslims and resulted in strained Hindu-Muslim relations due to emerging differences.

The Simon Commission (1927)

Appointed by the British government, it was to report on the constitutional progress of India and consisted of no Indians. Thereby, there were boycotts all over with the cry of “Simon Go Back.” The exclusion of Indians in the commission on which decision for their future was being taken; it was considered an affront.

The Nehru Report, 1928

The Indian reaction to the commission of Simon was to present the Nehru Report, which proposed a constitution for a dominion status constitutional system for India. On the other hand, it refused separate electorates and did not satisfy the Muslim minorities. This led Muhammad Ali Jinnah to demand on behalf of the Muslim rights, a guarantee which was not responded to.

Jinnah’s Fourteen Points (1929)

In effect, this was a rejoinder to the Nehru Report, and Jinnah presented a set of proposals called his Fourteen Points, demanding:

Federal Constitution: Residual powers to the provinces.

Adequate Representation: The Case of Minorities in the Legislatures.

Separate Electorates: Continued for Muslims.

Safeguards To the culture and religion of Muslims.

These points formed the basis of future negotiations in the Muslim League and underlined the growing gulf between the Congress and the Muslim League.

Allahabad Address of Allama Iqbal (1930)

It was in the session of the Muslim League at Allahabad that the philosopher-poet Allama Muhammad Iqbal espoused a separate Muslim state in northwestern India. Muslims, he argued, constituted a nation with a right to political autonomy. The speech has come to be recognized as a landmark for what would finally be called Pakistan.

Round Table Conferences 1930-32

First Round Table Conference

It was held in London and was to discuss constitutional reforms. The Congress boycotted it, but other Indian leaders, including the Muslims, took part. Not much work was achieved as main stakeholders did not attend it.

Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931)

To persuade the Congress to return to the negotiating table, Viceroy Lord Irwin signed a pact with Gandhi whereby the Viceroy would release all political prisoners in exchange for allowing peaceful protest on the part of the Congress. In turn, the Congress agreed to participate in the Second Round Table Conference.

Second Round Table Conference

Gandhi represented the Congress, while there were bumps in the way over minority representation and federal structure. The conference ended in no agreement.

Communal Award (1932)

British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald announced the ‘Communal Award’ that gave separate electorates to minorities, including Muslims, Sikhs, and Dalits. The Muslims accepted it, but the separate electorate for the Dalits was opposed by Gandhi; this resulted in the Poona Pact with Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, changing the provisions.

Third Round Table Conference

It The last conference had some scant participation and could not solve important issues; the British government unilaterally proposed another of the constitution.

Government of India Act 1935

It came up with provincial autonomy and a proposed federal structure. Elections in 1937 were held under this act.

1937 Elections and Congress Ministries

The Congress gained a majority in several provinces and formed ministries. However, allegations of discrimination and high-handedness by the Congress ministries against the Muslims flared up communitarian tensions. The Muslim League launched agitations on these grievances.

The Lahore Resolution (1940)

It was at Lahore, during the annual session of the Muslim League under his lead, that the party had its formal demand for independent states separately for the Muslims in the northwest and eastern areas. This came to be called the Pakistan Resolution for a separate country later and formed the base of the Movement for Pakistan.

The August Offer 1940

An attempt at placating the Indians and winning their active cooperation on the British war front in the Second World War, the British government brought its August Offer that kept promises of an expanded Executive Council and a constituent assembly after the event. Insufficient to both the Congress and the Muslim League, this offer was rejected.

The Cripps Mission (1942)

Sir Stafford Cripps offered dominion status after the war with freedom to provinces for opting out. The plan was rejected on the issue of inability to achieve the requirements related to complete freedom. Additionally, the question of Pakistan emerged from the Muslim League, which was not addressed by this plan.

The Quit India Movement (1942)

The Congress inaugurated the Quit India Movement, which called for a cessation of British rule, but this movement did not enlist the official support of the Muslim League, preoccupied as it was with its task of attaining Pakistan.

Gandhi-Jinnah Talks 1944

An attempt at ironing out differences between the Congress and the League, talks which ultimately broke down as Jinnah insisted on Pakistan while Gandhi offered a united India with safeguards for Muslims.

Wavell Plan and Shimla Conference (1945)

The Viceroy, Lord Wavell, proposed the reconstitution of the Executive Council with a equal number of Hindus and Muslims. For discussion of this proposal, the Shimla Conference was summoned and it collapsed on the Muslim League’s demand to be the sole representative of Indian Muslims.

General Elections of 1945-46

These elections reflected the overwhelming success of the Muslim League among the Muslims, as it won the majority of the reserved seats. This great electoral success strengthened its claim to represent the Indian Muslims and intensified the demand for Pakistan.

The Cabinet Mission Plan (1946)

A British delegation suggested a united India that was to be federated with grouped provinces, thus allowing a measure of regional self-government. It was initially both accepted by the Congress and the Muslim League but was later foiled by disagreement over interpretations.

Direct Action Day (1946)

Exasperated by the political deadlocks; the League announced the Direct-Action Day for the forcible assertion of its demand for Pakistan. The day saw the worst form of communal riots, particularly in Calcutta, and extended the gulf between Hindus and Muslims ultimately.

3rd June Plan

It given by Lord Mountbatten himself It was Lord Mountbatten who proposed a partition plan of India into two dominions, with the Congress and the Muslim League eventually accepting this proposal, knowing well that partition would inevitably be the only solution to the communal problem.

Robert Radcliffe Award

Partition, 1947 Line to divide Punjab and Bengal was drawn by Sir Cyril Radcliffe. Millions of people were dispossessed and communal violence broke out because of the Radcliffe Line. Pakistan became independent on 14th August 1947 and India gained independence on 15th August 1947.

Aftermath and Legacy

The partition caused one of the largest mass migrations in history-estimated 15 million-and hundreds of thousands of deaths. The entire process of approaching independence was a traumatic affair but laid the foundation for Pakistan to work on its national identity and institutions of governance.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1. What led to the formation of the All India Muslim League?

The Muslim community felt underrepresented and marginalized within the Indian National Congress. The success of the Shimla Deputation highlighted the need for a separate political platform to safeguard Muslim interests, leading to the formation of the All India Muslim League in 1906.

2. Why was the Lahore Resolution significant?

The Lahore Resolution of 1940 formally articulated the demand for separate independent states for Muslims in the northwestern and eastern zones of India. It became the foundation for the demand for Pakistan.

3. What were Jinnah’s Fourteen Points?

Presented in 1929 by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the Fourteen Points outlined the Muslim League’s constitutional demands, including federalism, adequate minority representation, and the continuation of separate electorates.

4. Why did the Gandhi-Jinnah Talks fail?

The talks failed because of fundamental differences: Jinnah insisted on the creation of Pakistan as a separate nation for Muslims, while Gandhi proposed a united India with protections for Muslims.

5. What was the impact of the partition in 1947?

The partition led to massive communal violence, the displacement of millions of people, and long-standing tensions between India and Pakistan. It also resulted in the emergence of Pakistan as an independent nation on 14th August 1947.